Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the sociocultural level of analysis.

Introduction

• State what you are doing in the essay 
• This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of how and why particular research methods are used at the sociocultural level of analysis (SCLA). 
  
  
• Define the sociocultural level of analysis 
• The sociocultural level of analysis (SCLA) is the scientific study of how people"s thoughts, feelings and thus behaviours are influenced by actual, implied or imagined presence of others and the environment around them.
• Or simply – the study of how society and culture can affect behaviour. 
  
  
• Outline what is a research method? / What is the purpose of research methods in Psychology
• Researchers need to have a method for collecting and analysing data.
• There are many different/various methods researchers and psychologists use to conduct their studies.
• Research methods are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies. 
  
  
• State the main research methods used in psychological research 
• There are 6 main research methods used in psychology, which consists of the following: 
• Experiments 
• Case Studies 
• Observational Studies 
• Interviews 
• Surveys/Questionnaires 
• Correlational Studies 
  
  
• Introduce the concept of triangulation 
• Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research methods of investigation to explore the same aspect, as using 2 or more may be more suitable and effective in finding out the necessary aims of the researcher.
• It also increases credibility.
• There are 4 main types of triangulation: 
• Data 
• Researcher 
• Theoretical 
• Methodological 
  
  
• State, make the examiner aware of the biases involved in psychological research
  • In psychological research, certain biases are present, which may affect or influence the findings of the experiment, sometimes in a positive way, but mostly in a negative light/nature.
  • There are two major types of biases, which are:
  • Researcher bias:
  • - The researcher/s sees what they are looking for, in which the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study. 
  • Observer bias
    • - The participant/s act differently or accordingly due to the consciousness of being observed by people (researchers), which may influence the nature of the study.
      
      
• State (introduce) the research methods used at the SCLA 
• In sociocultural psychology, testable theories, and assumptions of a human"s social self and how we come to communicate and interact with the environment are observed through the social environment, which, unlike in the BLA and CLA, can be undergone.
• These ideas are tested and observed using research methods such as experiments, case studies, correlational studies, and interviews to focus on groups and individuals, in order to collect to develop and or support a theory. 
• At the SCLA the main research methods used are experiments, observations, interviews, and questionnaires. 
  
  
• State what you are doing in the essay 
• These will be further analysed in the body of the essay, looking at studies and how and why these research methods are used.
• The research methods that will be discussed in the following essay will be experiments and observations. These will be further analysed in the body of the essay, looking at examples and the strengths and limitations of these research methods. 
  
  

Body: 

Research Method 1: EXPERIMENTS 

• Introduction to experiments in the SCLA 
• In sociocultural research, the goal is to see how people interact with each other. Though experiments are sometimes used, the majority of research today is more qualitative in nature. It is important that the behaviour of the participants is as realistic as possible, to avoid studies that lack ecological validity.
• Therefore, a significant amount of research is naturalistic – that is, “as it really is.” Much of the research is done in the environments in which the behaviour is most likely to take place.
• Early research mostly carried out laboratory experiments, because that was considered to be the most scientific way of obtaining data. 
  
  
• Define an experiment? 
• What is the purpose of an experiment?
• Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).
  
  
• Outline how experiments are used
  • Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent variable (DV)
  • Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled conditions (laboratory experiments)
  • Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative data may be collected as well
    
    
• Types of experimental settings
• There are three different types of experiments, which include a laboratory experiment, a natural (QUASI) experiment and a field experiment.
  
  

• Outline why experiments are used 
  
• It is considered/perceived to be the most scientific research method 
• Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)
  
  
• Outline experiments used in the SCLA 
• Sheriff (1935) 
• Asch (1955)
  
  

Study 1: Sheriff (1935) 

Introduce the study 

• I: An example of an experiment is by Sheriff (1935) 
• A: To demonstrate that people conform to group norms when put in an ambiguous situation 
  
  
• How does it reflect an experiment? 
• IV: The autokinetic effect – the distance of how far a light beam "appeared" to move in a dark room --> therefore, changing the amount of people to represent a group sample to test the level of conformity in the group, in relation to their estimated answers.
• DV: Their estimate on how far the light moved (except for the fact that the light didn't really move which is an issue, because how can you test conformity to something that doesn't actually happen). 
• But really Sheriff was testing the level of conformity within a group, not the actual estimate of how far people think the light had moved (the autokinetic effect). The conformity was based on if the individuals conformed to the more similar answers within a group, if their estimate had a large difference.
• IV: Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated

• Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised
• Cause: The group situation formed when Sheriff brought the participants together to tell the answer in front of the group. 
• Effect: Level of conformity between the individuals in the group (How many people conformed to the answer which was the most popular, from their first or original guess).
• The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found using other research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.)
• This would not be able to be able to be found as effectively with other research methods such as a survey or case study, as experiments are the most suitable type to use for this particular study.
  
  

• Introduce: An example of an experiment in the SCLA is by Asch (1951). 
• A: To investigate conformity in an unambiguous task. 
• How does it reflect an experiment?
• IV: Line Judgement Task – He manipulated the length of the "test" lines to the "original" line but since he was investigating conformity, the IV was the confederates (correct or incorrect)
• DV: The participants" line judgement (how they match up two lines of the same length); when really Asch was measuring the level of conformity between the individuals in a group situation.
• Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated
• Why was an experiment used?
• Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised
• Cause: The group situation formed when Asch asked the participants to tell what they thought each answer was in front of the group.
• Effect: Level of conformity between the individuals in the group (How many people conformed to the answer which was the most popular, from their first or original guess).
• The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found using other research methods (e.g. surveys or interviews, etc.)
• This would not be able to be able to be found as effectively with other research methods such as a survey or case study, as an experiment was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.
  
  

• Introduce the next research method (observational studies) and relate it within the context. 
• Like experiments, another key research method used frequently in the SCLA is participant observations.
• Today, social psychologists frequently attempt to “see the world through the eyes of the people being studied.” In order to do this, participant observation is often utilised. 
  
  
• Define participant observations 
• Participant observation is when researchers immerse themselves in a social setting for an extended period of time and observe people"s behaviour. 
  
  
• Outline how participant observations are used: 
• Participant observations are used to observe normal behaviour of participants in their normal environments.
• Observations involve informal interviews, direct and indirect observation, collective discussions and participation in the life of a group, where the researcher/s decide if they want to be involved in the life of the person they are observing/studying. 
• Researchers try to gain the trust of the participants
• Observations are a qualitative research method
• Recording observational data often involves constructing a grid based on the nature of the study and number or participants and observers 
• Expected behaviour is categorized and observers tick the appropriate cell when a behaviour is observed 
• Grids make it easy for the observer to record target behaviour 
• But a rich display of behaviour may be reduced to a set of frequencies 
• The grid reflects researchers" pre-existing assumptions and expectations 
• Researchers sometimes use vaguely defined protocol to record behaviour
• For example, recording descriptive notes and thoughts on a black sheet of paper 
• Researcher" 
• Analysis of data depends on data collection approach
• Analysis aims to reduce large amounts of information into more manageable chunks and use the reduced version to make sense of behaviour 
• One of the many ways to reduce data is to code observations according to perceived themes in data 
• These themes can be considered superordinate themes if they can be grouped in some way that can be given a superordinate label 
• These superordinate themes should be used to reconstruct a descriptive account of observed behaviour 
  
  
• Types of participant observations: 
• There are two types of participant observation – covert and overt observation. 
• Covert observation –participants are not informed that they are being observed. 
• Overt observation –participants know they are being observed. 
  
  
• Outline why observational studies are used - strengths 
• Participants are likely to behave normally because they are in their normal environments 
• It can provide new insights and direction for research.
• Participant observations can provide a rich source of qualitative data, including detailed conversations and descriptions of participant"s feelings. 
• Covert participant observations allow researchers to study a group that may be hostile or dishonest to an outsider observing their behaviour. 
• For example, groups that participate in illegal activities (e.g. drug dealers) 
  
  
• Outline why observations are not used - limitations 
• Observer bias - the researcher"s own belief, values, and thoughts affect their interpretation of behaviour.
• Observer effects - the presence of the observer affects the behaviour of participants. 
• Demand characteristics – effects that occur from participants guessing aims of the study and acting accordingly
• Audience effects – exaggeration or concealment of behaviour because of being watched 
• Sample sizes are usually small because a researcher can only be in one place at one time and can only obtain in-depth research on a small number of people.
• Lacks ecological validity.
• Lacks population validity
• Qualitative data cannot be quantified
• Cannot be replicated due to lack of fixed procedures and interpretative skills of the researcher.
• Low reliability
• Cannot be used to explain cause -effect relationships like experiments.
• Often quite costly and time-consuming
• Covert observers have difficulty taking notes and often have to rely on memory
• Data is open to distortion
• In covert observations, interviews cannot be carried out for fear of being discovered

Ethical considerations

• Many ethical issues concerning participant observations (especially covert) are reasons why the use of this research method may be undesirable
• As a an active participant, the researcher may have to participate in a social situation where they are unable to behave according to the best ethical practice
• There may be limitations to objective ethical judgement 
• It is difficult to act in an ethical manner if all are acting unethically without introducing confounding variables 
• Participant protection 
• The researcher has little capacity to act beyond what a situation demands which  reduces their capacity to ensure the well-being of those around the 
• Consent
  
• In covert observations, informed consent is not obtained
• Therefore, it is unsure whether participants are willing to have their data used in the study
• It is argued whether participants should be informed after the study has ended
• But this may cause distress and be unethical as participants may feel paranoid, insecure, etc.
• In overt observations, participants know they are being observed
• But informing them of the true nature and aims of the study may reduce validity or credibility of conclusions of the study
• Withdrawal
• In covert observations, if participants are not informed about the study, they are not aware of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty 
• Deception
  
• Covert observations involve deception as people do not know they are being observed 
• Participants do not know the true reasons for the presence of the researchers 
• Researchers are rarely truthful if they reveal the reason for their presence
• Debriefing
  
• In covert observations, participants are typically not debriefed 
  
• But debriefing is considered unnecessary if participants did not know they were in a study 
  
• But if harm is inflicted, there are no records by which they may be followed up or counselled upon 
• Outline observational studies used in the CLA:
• Festinger et al. (1956) 
• Kolo and Baur (2004)
  
  
  

• Festinger et al. (1956) conducted a study called, "When Prophecy Fails" that utilized participant observation. 
• a religious cult believed that the world would end on 21 December, and that they would be rescued by flying saucers if they followed the rituals and read sacred texts
  
  
• How does it reflect a participant observation?
• Festinger and his team carried out a "covert" observation on members of the cult, by joining the cult themselves allowing them to observe the behaviours of the group"s members in their natural environment
• Researchers participated in the lives and activities of the group
• Researchers gained the group"s trust
  
  
• Why was an observation technique used?
• Participants are likely to behave normally because they are in their normal environments 
  
• Covert observation was used because the cult would not approve of an outsider observing their behaviour
  
• Cult members were not allow to interact with non-believers To study and monitor the group"s doubt, debate and rationalisation when "nothing" had occurred.
  
• Participant observation allowed researchers to gain enriched qualitative data including detailed conversations and descriptions of participants" feelings
• In depth qualitative information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods (e.g. experiments, survey, etc.)
  
  
• Ethical issues
• Privacy may be violated by the researcher.
• Informed consent was not obtained
• Participants were not informed of their right to withdraw 
• Researchers used deception to study the group"s behaviour 
• Participants were not debriefed.