Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.

Introduction

• State what you are doing in the essay 
  
• This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of ethical considerations related to research at the cognitive level of analysis (CLA). 
• Define the cognitive level of analysis 
  
• The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking. 
• Describe ethical considerations 
  
• In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid
• Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for ethical issues. 
• Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide by.
• These ethics are: 
• Protection of participants 
• Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress 
• This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc. 
• Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information. 
• Consent 
• Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving consent
• Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research. 
• Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study 
• It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected 
• A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are 
• Children under 18 years of age 
• Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and aims of the study 
• Right to withdraw 
• Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty. 
• Confidentiality 
• Data collected in a study should remain confidential and anonymous to protect participants from possible consequences that may result from their data 
• Deception
• Deception should be avoided
• But slight deception is considered acceptable if: 
• Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study 
• The research has potential significant contribution 
• It is unavoidable 
• The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including upon being informed of the deception
• If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained 
• Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity 
• Debriefing 
• Any deception must be revealed and justified
• Participants should leave the study without undue stress 
• Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible

Body

Study 1: ‘Genie’ Curtiss (1981)

Background:

• Genie was a girl who had been deprived of normal exposure to language early in life 
  
• She had no apparent language skills when she was discovered at age 13. 
  

Aim: 

• To investigate the sensitive period hypothesis there is a sensitive learning period (before puberty) during which language must be acquired to develop normally. 
  

• Researchers encouraged her to verbalise and socialise. 
  
• They communicated with her, taught her sign language, and provided a caring environment for Genie. 
  

Ethical issues of this study:

• There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:
  

Participant Protection

• Genie was protected from harm during the study 
  
• But when researchers concluded the study, Genie was left to live in an adult foster home 
  
• Genie may have experienced mental distress from the dramatic change in environment and carers and the leaving of the researchers 

Consent 

• Genie could not be fully informed or give consent to the study due to language restrictions and mental state 
  
• But Genie was not in a healthy state of mind to understand the nature and aims of the study 
  
• Therefore, it may not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

• Genie would not be able to express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions and mental state 
  

• Her identity was kept anonymous as 'Genie' is not her real name 
  
• Although her real name was not revealed, her case was exposed to the world of psychology 
  

Debriefing 

• Genie was not debriefed at the end of the study 
  
• She ended up living in an adult foster home, still requiring treatment as she is still language impaired. 
  
• However, since she did not know that she was being studied, she would not desire a debriefing. 
  

Inappropriate behaviour of researchers 

• Researchers had a very personal and attached relationship with Genie 
  
• This was inappropriate for scientific research 
  
• Leads to the questioning of objectivity and their aims for studying Genie 
  
  

Study 2: Clive Wearing Sacks (2007)

Background: 

• Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis. 
  
• This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused memory impairment. 
  
• He suffers: 
• anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident 
• retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular incident. 
• Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural knowledge) 
  
• He could not transfer information from STM tLTM. 
  
• His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories. 
  

Ethical issues of this study

• There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:
  

Consent

• Wearing did not give consent to being in a study 
  
• His wife gave consent for him to be studied 
• But Wearing would not remember being informed of the study or giving consent due to his short memory span 
  

Confidentiality 

• Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality 
  
• Wearing’s real name was revealed 
• His case was revealed to the world of psychology 
• But since Wearing's memory lasts a short period of time, he would not remember that his confidentiality was violated 
  

Withdraw 

• Wearing would not remember being in a study or his right to withdraw and so would not express any desires to withdraw 
  

• Wearing was not debriefed 
  
• But because of his short memory span, he would not know he is in a study and would not desire a debriefing
  

APA Guidelines for Animal Research 

• Tries to avoid harm to animals 
  
• But harm may still be inflicted on animals, 
• The research may potentially provide significant benefit to the health or welfare of humans or other animals 
• If it is unavoidable 
• If the procedure would cause pain to humans, it should be assumed that it will cause pain to animals 
  
• Animal welfare should be monitored 
  
• Animals should be euthanized as soon as possible if research 
• Causes long term/serious harm 
• Affects their ability to live 
• Normally 
• Pain-free 

Study 3: Blakemore & Cooper (1970) “Kitten carrousel” 

Aim: 

• To investigate the effect of exposure to spatially periodic patterns on the brains of cats 
  

Ethics:

Participant protection

• 6 male cats were placed in a drum with only vertical or only horizontal lines 
  
• Kittens were made to wear a cuff around the neck to prevent them seeing lines of any other orientation 
  
• Cats may have experienced distress from being forced to live in a confined, unnatural environment and wearing a cuff 
• The cats' primary visual cortex would fire in response to the lines presented in the orientation they were exposed to and not lines which were perpendicular 
  
• There was physical degeneration in the visual cortex as a result of the lines the cats were exposed to 
• Researchers caused permanent physical damage to the cats' visual cortex

Animal ethics

• Researchers had done permanent damage to the cats that may have affected their ability to live a normal, pain-free live 
  
• But the cats were not euthanized 
  
• The welfare of cats was not monitored 
  

Consent 

• Cats could not be fully informed about the study 
  
• Cats could not give consent 
  
• But cats would not be able to understand if they were being studied 
  
• Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

• Cats could not express any desires to withdraw from the study 
  

• Cats were not debriefed 
  
• But since they are animals and they did not know they were in a study, they may not desire a debriefing
  

Study 4: Gardner and Gardner (1969) “Washoe”

Aim: 

• To demonstrate that a chimpanzee has the capability to use human language 
  

• Researchers caught Washoe an infant female chimp, estimated to be 8-14 months old and reared her as a human child in America 
  
• They attempted to teach Washoe American Sign Language (ASL) 
  
• Washoe may have experienced distress from being removed from her natural environment, living in an unnatural environment and learning sign language

Consent

• Washoe could not be fully informed about the study 
  
• Washoe could not give consent 
  
• But Washoe would not be able to understand if she was being studied 
  
• Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

• Washoe could not express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions 
  

• Washoe was not debriefed 
  
• But since Washoe is an animal and may not have not known she was in a study, she may not desire a debriefing 

Conclusion 

• Ethical considerations in all research in psychology includes, 
  
• Protection of participants from harm 
• Consent
• Withdrawal
• Confidentiality 
• Deception 
• Debriefing 
• But there are slight exceptions for consent and deception 
  
• Animal research has slightly different ethical considerations 
  
• Differences regard harming participants and ethical euthanasia