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Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis.

Introduction

  • State what you are doing in the essay 
    • This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis (CLA). 

  • Define the cognitive level of analysis 
    • The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking, which are carried out by the brain and guide our behaviour.
    • The CLA is involved in finding out how the human mind comes to know things about the world and how it uses this knowledge. 

  • Outline what is a research method? / What is the purpose of research methods in Psychology? 
    • Researchers need to have a method for collecting and analysing data.
    • There are many different/various methods researchers and psychologists use to conduct their studies.
    • Research methods are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies. 

  • State the main research methods used in psychological research 
    • There are 6 main research methods used in psychology, which consists of the following: 
      • Experiments 
      • Case Studies 
      • Observational Studies 
      • Interviews 
      • Surveys/Questionnaires 
      • Correlational Studies 

  • Introduce the concept of triangulation 
    • Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research methods of investigation to explore the same aspect, as using 2 or more may be more suitable and effective in finding out the necessary aims of the researcher.
    • It also increases credibility. 
    • There are 4 main types of triangulation: 
      • Data 
      • Researcher 
      • Theoretical 
      • Methodological 

  • State, make the examiner aware of the biases involved in psychological research 
    • In psychological research, certain biases are present, which may affect or influence the findings of the experiment, sometimes in a positive way, but mostly in a negative light/nature.
    • There are two major types of biases, which are: 
      • Researcher bias: 
        • The researcher/s sees what they are looking for, in which the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study. 
      • Observer bias
        • The participant/s act differently or accordingly due to the consciousness of being observed by people (researchers), which may influence the nature of the study.

  • State (introduce) the research methods used at the CLA 
    • In cognitive psychology, testable theories are developed about cognitive structures and processes which cannot be directly observed.
    • These theories are tested using research methods such as experiments and case studies. 
    • At the CLA, the methods of investigation undertaken by cognitive psychologists range from laboratory experiments and case studies. 
    • They have in common the aim of obtaining relevant information on mental processes used to acquire, store, retrieve and apply knowledge about the world. 

  • State what you are doing in the essay 
    • These will be further analysed in the body of the essay, looking at studies and how and why these research methods are used.

Body

EXPERIMENTS

  • Define what an experiment is?  
    • What is the purpose of an experiment?
      • Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).

  • Outline how experiments are used
    • Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent variable (DV)
    • Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled conditions (laboratory experiments)
    • Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative data may be collected as well

  • Types of experimental settings
    • There are three different types of experiments, which include a laboratory experiment, a natural (QUASI) experiment and a field experiment.


 
 

  • Outline why experiments are used
    • It is considered/perceived to be the most scientific research method 
    • Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)
  • Outline experiments used in the CLA
    • Loftus & Palmer (1974) 
    • Craik & Tulving (1975) 
    • French & Richards (1993)

Evidence

Study 1: Loftus & Palmer (1974)

  • How does it reflect an experiment?
    • IV: Verb in the leading question
    • DV: Average speed estimates (smash, collide, bump, hit, contacted)
    • Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated 
  • Why was an experiment used? 
    • Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised
      •  Cause: The verbs in the leading questions – The wording of the question in eyewitness testimony/testimonials 
      •  Effect: Their schema a particular factor or experience in their life can be influenced, as their study shows that people are affect by the wording of a question.  
    • The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.)
    • This would not be able to be able to be found as effectively with other research methods such as observation or case study, as experiments was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.

Study 2: Craik and Tulving, 1975

  • How does it reflect an experiment?
    • IV: Depth or level of processing (shallow or deep)
    • DV: Memory recall of the original words from a list of 180 words in which theriginal series of 60 words in the question were interrelated/mixed into the 180 word series.
    • Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated
       
  • Why was an experiment used?
    • Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised
      • Cause: Level of (Shallow and Deep) Processing
      • Effect: Affects memory recall
    • The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.)
    • It was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.

Results

  • Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually processed.
Conclusion:

  • Semantically processed words involve deep processing which results in more accurate recall.

Study 3: French & Richards (1993) – Study of influence of schemata on memory retrieval

  • How does it reflect an experiment?
    • IV: There were three conditions:
      •  Condition One: participants were shown a clock with roman numerals and asked to draw the clock from memory 
      •  Condition Two: the same procedure, except the participants were told beforehand that they would be required to draw the clock from memory 
      •  Condition Three: the clock was left in full view of the participants and they just had to draw the clock  
    • DV: Memory Retrieval – how they recalled the memory of the clock that was shown to them and reproduced on paper. 
    • Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated

  • Why was an experiment used?
    • Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised
      •  Cause: Influence of schemata, our schema (our knowledge and viewpoint of how we perceive the world); in this case how we perceive clocks to look like. 
      •  Effect: Memory Retrieval – how much they would be able to remember.  
    • The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.) 
    • It was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.

CASE STUDIES

  • Introduce the next research method (case studies) and relate it within the context.
    • Like experiments, another key research method used frequently in the BLA is a case study.
  • Outline how case studies are used
    • In-depth study of an individual or small group
      • Because of this, case studies obtain information that may not be identifiable by using other research methods
    • Case studies are considered a qualitative research method, however quantitative data may be collected as well
    • They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews and observations
      • The conclusions are more valid than what may be gained from any of these research methods individually

  • Outline why case studies are used 
    • To obtain enriched (especially qualitative) data and information about mediating processes which could not be gained in any other way.
    • To study unusual psychological phenomena
    • Stimulates new research into an unusual phenomena 
    • To study a particular variable that cannot be produced in a laboratory. For example, due to ethical or financial restrictions.
    • To obtain other information they may not be able to get from other methods. 
  • Outline why case studies are not used limitations 
    • Researchers may develop more personal relationships with participants
      •  may result in subjective data or different behaviour of participants and researchers
    • Results of case studies are affected by the researcher's interpretations 
      • may be subjective and influenced by the researcher's beliefs, values, and opinions
    • May cost a lot of time, effort & money due to the amount of data and time of a case study
    • Cannot be replicated
    • Lacks population validity extent to which findings can be generalised to the whole population
      • Small participant sample 
      • Especially if study investigates a unique phenomenon 
  • Outline case studies used in the CLA
    • Shallice & Warrington “KF” (1974) 
    • Curtiss “Genie” (1981)
    • Milner “HM” (1966)

Evidence

Study 1: Shallice & Warrington (1974) – KF 

  • How does it reflect a case study? 
    • It was an in-depth study of KF’s condition, which lasted for a duration of years to trace the impact it had on his life.
  • Why was a case study used?
    • To study the unusual phenomena of a man who was in a motorcycle accident, which resulted in brain damage and impaired his memory functions.
    • To study a man who suffered from a motorcycle accident impairing his short term memory, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment.
    • In depth information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods (experiments, observations, etc.). 

Study 2: Curtiss (1981) – Genie

  • How does it reflect a case study?
    • It was an in-depth study of Genie’s condition, which lasted for a duration of years to trace the impact of the deprivation of normal and social environment from a young age on the rest of her life. Why was a case study used? To study the unusual phenomena of a young girl who experienced a deprivation of a normal exposure to language earlier on in her life, which impacted heavily her language and communication skills, and her ability to act like a ‘normal’ human being.’ 
    • To study a girl who experienced a deprivation of a normal, social environment impacting her language acquisition skills and other daily human tasks, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment.
    • This unusual phenomenon could not be studied using other research methods such as experiments or naturalistic observation and in-depth information would not be able to be obtained/collected if case studies weren’t used.

Study 3: Milner (1966) – HM

  • How does it reflect a case study?
    • It was an in-depth study of HM’s amnesia condition, which resulted from a head injury sustained when he was 9 years old, suffering epileptic seizures along with it. 
  • Why was a case study used? 
    • To study the unusual phenomena of how as a result of the removal of HM’s hippocampus and parts of his temporal lobe, amnesia can occur, as removing these significant parts of the brain can damage the formation of memories or impact parts of a person’s memory in general. 
    • To study the case of a man who suffered from anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) as a result of the removal of tissue from the temporal lobe including the hippocampus, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment, as it would most likely cause a similar condition to the extent of HM’s.
    • A case study allowed researchers to observe HM’s behaviour from when he was a young child, to his adolescent years, and after the surgery, in which they found out a link between the temporal lobe/hippocampi and memory  which led to further research, findings and advances in later studies, helping improve people’s understanding of certain disorders such as amnesia, and memory in general.
    • This unusual phenomenon could not be studied using other research methods such as experiments or naturalistic observation and in-depth information would not be able to be obtained/collected if case studies weren’t used.

Conclusion

  • Research methods are methods used for collecting and analysing data. 
  • The type of research method used is dependent on the aim. 
  • At the CLA, the two main research methods used are experiments and case studies. 

Experiments

  • To determine a cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV) 
  • Whereby an IV and DV may be manipulated.
  • Likewise, advantages and disadvantages of experiments depends on the type of experiment being conducted
  • There are three types: laboratory, field and natural/quasi experiments.

Case studies

  • In depth study of an individual or a small group; thus being able to collect enriched and detailed data.
  • Studies unusual psychological phenomena.
  • Considered to be a qualitative research method, but quantitative data may also be collected.
  • They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews and observations, which can aid in finding significant and relevant information in the study.


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